Telling the Story of Psychology: A Matter of Perspective

NOTE:  The following is a paper that was written as a final assignment for my History and Systems of Psychology course.  I am currently enrolled in a doctoral program at the University of the Rockies.

Abstract

The history of psychology is reviewed in relation to the historical periods of pre-modernism, modernism and post-modernism.  When possible the Eurocentric worldview posed by the course text book is contrasted with at least one other worldview. The influence of Rene Descartes is discussed especially his idea that man himself could be the source of truth through reasoning (Goodwin, 2008).  Descartes’ duality is contrasted with the unity of pre-modern African culture (Carroll, 2008).  In the modern period Locke’s empiricism and the idea that everything is derived from experience is contrasted with the African concept of Ubuntu; “I am because we are.”  Four major areas of psychology are reviewed: Gestalt psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism and Humanistic psychology.  Humanistic theory ushers in the post-modern period and diversity enters the discussion.  Changes in society and psychology are discussed in relation to diversity.  Finally, the significant influences on this writer’s career from teachings within African psychology and humanistic theory are discussed.  As American society becomes increasingly diverse psychologist must be prepared to accept the changes in order to remain effective.

From the outset it must be pointed out that the textbook being used for the course on the history of psychology was written strictly from a Eurocentric perspective.  Other perspectives or worldviews are not mentioned.  It is as if other people in the world during the same period did not have any ideas about human psychology worth mentioning.  The people living in what is now China, India and the many countries of South America and Africa had ideas about their humanity and their relationship to the universe and each other.  The ethnic and cultural composition of students in psychology is also very diverse. Yet Goodwin (2008) saw no need to mention other philosophies in telling the story of the history of psychology.  African Americans, Native Americans, women and others are only mentioned within the context of the history of western psychology.  Perhaps a more accurate name for the course would have been “History and Systems of Western Psychology.”  By excluding the word “western” it gives the impression that it is the total story of psychology.  Of course that could not be since the ideas of this author’s ancestors from the pre-modern period were not mentioned.  The title and subsequent content (or absence of content) provides an example of exactly what Sue (2004) described as Ethnocentric Monoculturalism.  The “Whiteness” becomes invisible and all of the standards and definitions are from a monocultural perspective.  In this paper this writer will offer information from at least one other human perspective as a contrast to the Eurocentric perspective offered by Goodwin (2008).  As we are currently in the post-modern period of psychology it seems appropriate that a more pluralistic approach be adopted that questions the authority of the established hierarchy.

The Pre-Modern Period (Beginnings – 1650)

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) emerged at the end of the Pre-modern period and was classically trained by Jesuits (Goodwin, 2008).  However, he became frustrated with the pace of his education and at 18 years old set out to have experiences of his own.  Descartes sought answers to questions philosophers had been posing for centuries.  In his Discourse on Method he established a process for determining what truth is.  One truth he identified was “I think, therefore I am.”  His ideas focused on the individual’s ability to seek truth through reasoning.  Descartes reasoned that the mind and body were separate.  He viewed the body as mechanical and existing in space but saw the mind (soul) as non-physical and existing outside of space.  Nevertheless, he did see the mind and body as interacting with each other (Goodwin, 2008).

Descartes’ ideas along with others during the Renaissance such as Galileo Galilei and Sir Francis Bacon, marked the end of the Pre-modern period characterized by the idea that truth could only be known through revelation and the church was the ultimate authority.  Galileo’s empirical evidence of a heliocentric universe and Bacon’s inductive approach to science set the stage for Descartes to assert that truth could be uncovered through reason (Goodwin, 2008).  Man as an individual using his power to reason has the potential to arrive at truth separate from an external authority.  Thus, the ideas of these men and others ushered in the Modern period. 

On the continent of Africa the dominant philosophy during the Pre-modern period was one that did not separate spirit or the non-material universe from the material universe (Carol, 2008).  The view was that spirit energy is the source of all manifestation in the material universe and continues to exist as spirit energy within material objects both animate and inanimate.  Also, all spirit energy is interconnected and interdependent.  In African philosophy mind (soul) and body exists as one.  These ideas were very similar to what had developed in China and India during the Per-modern period.  Plato, Aristotle and then Descartes believed in an either/or, good or evil dichotomy.  African and Eastern philosophy can be described as diunital (Carroll, 2010) meaning the acknowledgement that opposites exist side by side at the same time. Good and evil always exist together and naturally move toward balance.  Such a difference in worldview would have produced a very different approach to answering questions in psychology.

The Modern Period (1650-1950)

The Modern Period was characterized by empiricism which views knowledge as being the result of experience (Goodwin, 2008).  John Locke is usually considered the founder of empiricism.  Locke distinguished himself from Descartes and rejected the idea of innate ideas arriving out of reason.  Locke believed that ideas are derived from experience and we begin having experiences from the time we are born (Goodwin, 2008).  Interestingly enough in Africa especially South Africa the idea of Ubuntu emerged (Jamison, 2010).  Stated simply, Ubuntu means “I am because we are.”  What makes us human comes from experiences with other humans.  Without these experiences we would not know what it means to be human or how to be human.  The difference is that the focus of Ubuntu is on experience with other humans whom we are seen to be interdependent and interconnected with.  Locke’s ideas involved experience with or without other humans.  Nevertheless, there is certainly an overlap in the ideas.

Locke’s empiricism led to a focus on sensory perception since it is through our senses that we experience the world.  Empiricism combined with the scientific method resulted in detailed empirical studies of human sensory perception.  Empiricists favored the nature side of the nature vs. nurture debate believing that experience has a far greater influence on human performance than innate abilities.  However, rationalists such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) and later Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argued that the ability to organize human experiences into meaningful information required that something had to precede the experience and that “something” would have to be innate (Goodwin, 2008).  Kant argued that psychology could never become a physical science because mental phenomena could not be observed directly or be defined and measured with the precision of mathematics (Goodwin, 2008).  Nevertheless, the scientific study of perception continued and resulted in many new theories and concepts.  Many of the studies began to establish direct relationships between physiological structures in the brain and nervous system with behaviors.  In spite of Kant’s doubts about psychology becoming a science, physiological research was contributing to an improved understanding of the relationships between the physical brain and observable behavior (Goodwin, 2008). 

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is considered the founder of experimental psychology (Goodwin, 2008).  Wundt established strict experimental procedures that focused primarily on the immediate perceptual responses of his subjects.  He made a clear distinction between self-observation (immediate) and internal perception (involving interpretation and memory) (Goodwin, 2008).  This distinction was the main reason he believed the controlled setting of the laboratory was limited to immediate conscious experience of basic mental processes.  Although he was very interested in studying learning, thinking, language and the effects of culture, he felt they could not be controlled sufficiently to be examined in the laboratory (Goodwin, 2008).

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) released On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life in 1959 (Goodwin, 2008).  The initial printing of 1250 copies sold out on the first day.  Darwin did not discuss humans in his book but applications to humans were made by the church, other scientists and in the field of psychology.  Darwin did very directly discuss humans in subsequent books and suggested a continuity of mental processes existed between man and other species.  His theories led to the development of comparative psychology (Goodwin, 2008). 

One of the principles identified by Darwin was that individual members within a species varied from each other.  Francis Galton (1822-1911) studied such individual differences in humans.  He believed that characteristics such as intelligence and scientific aptitude were inherited (Goodwin, 2008).  Such beliefs became very wide spread among Europeans and Americans and further justified or rationalized the mistreatment of Africans during the salve trade.  For many scientists Darwin’s research seemed to provide scientific evidence of European superiority over Africans.

Psychology in America developed within this context.  Even though several debates raged in the field of psychology at the time such as nature vs. nurture and structuralism vs. functionalism, the underlying assumption was that white males were a superior variety of the human species.  White woman were viewed as not having the same capacities as their male counterparts and other races were simply viewed as being evolutionarily inferior. Thus, in America the foundation was established for what Sue (2004) calls Ethnocentric Monoculturalism.  The remainder of the Modern Period would see this paradigm developed and supported. 

Four Major Trends in American Psychology

Four of the trends that emerged in American Psychology during the Modern Period were Gestalt psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism and Humanistic psychology.  Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Khler are credited with bringing Gestalt psychology to America (Goodwin, 2008).  The basic idea of Gestalt psychology is not that the whole is simply greater than the sum of its parts, but that the whole is something entirely different than the sum of the parts.  Gestalt psychologists put forth that the way we perceive and interact with our environment cannot be explained simply by understanding the components of perception.  Our brains have tendencies and abilities that help us organize the information into meaningful perceptions and those tendencies and abilities are extremely useful in adapting to an environment, problem solving and learning new things.  Gestalt psychologists introduced such concepts as phi phenomenon that explains why we perceive motion from still images presented in rapid succession.  Productive thinking was also a key concept introduced by the Gestaltists.  Productive thinking involves the ability to solve a new problem by recognizing and applying elements that are already familiar. 

Psychoanalysis was introduced to America by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).  Freud developed his theory of personality and psychoanalysis over several decades.  His basic idea was that psychopathology could be traced back to biological drives (Goodwin, 2008).  He asserted that when these drives were frustrated in one way or another during childhood the result was unconscious conflict.  If the unconscious conflict persisted into adulthood it would be displayed as some sort of psychological problem.  The method to resolve the problem, therefore, was to uncover the unconscious conflict and bring it to the attention of the patient.

Initially Freud used two primary techniques to uncover the contents of the unconscious mind.  One was free association and the other was interpretation of dreams.  Later Freud developed what he called metapsychology as a general theory of human behavior and mental processes.  Within metapsychology Freud posed the idea of the structural analysis of personality.  Structural analysis identifies three components of the personality; the id, the ego, and the superego.  The id is that part of the personality that responds directly to basic drives and seeks pleasurable experiences with little regard to consequences or social limitations.  The superego serves as the conscience or keeper of morality, ready to impose limitations on the id.  The ego is the objective adult that seeks to find a healthy balance between to id and superego.  When the ego fails or is unable to perform its function the result is mental problems or psychopathology. 

John B. Watson (1878-1958) emerged in the United States as the founder of behaviorism (Goodwin, 2008).  Watson believed that behavior could be changed by controlling the environment and was adept at designing experiments to investigate and explain observed behavior of animals in his laboratory.  Watson contrasted his approach and ideas with that of Titchener and the structuralists.  In his “Behaviorist Manifesto” Watson set out to establish psychology as a natural science with a clear set of goals, devoid of unscientific introspection and accepting of the evolutionary model of behavior (Goodwin, 2008). 

B. F. Skinner also believed in the idea that behavior could be changed by controlling the environment and continued in the tradition of Watson regarding developing rigorous research design to support the scientific nature of his concepts.  Skinner’s research focused on what came after the behavior and altering behavior by altering the consequences of the behavior.  His approach became known as Operant Conditioning.  Skinner was concerned with what controls how the organism operates on the environment.  He believed very strongly in a purely inductive approach to research where samples of behavior are studied and the researcher looks for patterns as opposed to always working from a theory and then testing hypotheses based on the theory (Goodwin, 2008).

Humanistic theory and psychology developed as an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.  The humanists rejected the idea that human behavior could be explained by repressed biological drives or conditioning from the environment (Goodwin, 2008).  The two major figures of humanistic psychology were Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987).  Maslow is best known for his hierarchy of needs and the concept of self-actualization.  Humanists believe that human thought, feeling and behavior is motivated by a tendency to seek self-actualization.   Rogers developed what became known as the therapeutic triad of genuineness, unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy.  Most of the empirical studies involving an evaluation of these concepts found that when they are properly employed by the therapist outcomes are better regardless of the specific technique being used (Kerschenbaum and Jourdan, 2005).  Humanistic psychology became increasingly popular in the 1960’s and 1970’s as it ushered in the Post-modern Period. 

The Post-modern Period (1950-now): Diversity enters the Discussion

Post-modernism is characterized by pluralism and increased openness to new ideas.  The source of knowing can come from other than the established authority.  Established authority is often questioned.  Critical thinking about previous assumptions is central to the development and progress of knowledge and understanding.  Paradigm shifts are welcomed. 

One of the outcomes of post-modernist thinking is an attempt to counter the assumptions of the Ethnocentric Monoculturalism.   Discussions about multiculturalism and culturally competent treatment become common place.  However, talking about being more open and actually implementing real change can be two different things (Yutrzenka et al, 1999).  In the pre- and modern periods worldviews other than a European or Euro-American worldview were not even acknowledged as existing.  Thus far in the post-modern period alternate worldviews are acknowledged as an issue for psychologist to be aware of in relation to clients (APA, 2003), but not yet given full legitimacy in the academic arena regarding the methodology of research (Carroll, 2010). 

If one desires to learn about what African American psychologists have been researching and writing about since the 1960’s there are a number of sources and journals from which a wealth of information can be obtained.  However, conducting a search of some of the prominent names in contemporary African American psychology comes up empty with the University of the Rockies online library.  With the exception of a few abstracts, such names as Na’im Akbar, Wade Nobles, and Linda James Myers netted no results when searching for full articles.  Yet all have been President of the Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) and all are university professors with a long list of published works.  Within the African American community they are well known and respected.  This writer is not certain why their articles cannot be found at the University of the Rockies online library. 

Akbar, Nobles, Myers and others have all been involved in conducting empirical research and literature reviews on basic questions of worldview and human psychology over the past 40 years (Jamison, 2010).  This writer was mentored early in his career by Bobby Wright (1934-1982) who received his PhD in Psychology from the University of Chicago.  Wright developed the theory of “Mentacide” which is the systematic destruction of Black minds by a Eurocentric dominated society (Wright, 1985).  He was considered very radical even amongst other African American scholars.  What was engaging about Dr. Wright was that he challenged his students and employees to think for themselves and to not simply accept what was being taught as factual by university psychology departments. 

Wright’s views were typical of many African American psychologists and scholars attempting to answer questions relating to the impact of slavery and continued racism on African Americans.  One set of issues related to how African American mental health has been affected and the other side of the question attempts to explain how Eurocentricism came about and what its impact has been on the mental health of persons of European decent.  Much of what has been written on these questions and the theories that have been developed are often too radical for organizations like the APA to accept.  However, more moderated conceptions that put forth very similar ideas such as Sue’s (2004) Ethnocentric Monoculturalism are accepted by the APA.  

The APA (2003) guidelines are very comprehensive and inclusive of all persons that have been or can be marginalized by a dominant culture.   The guidelines (which are slated to be updated in 2012) also acknowledge the fact that there is a significant faction within the United States that seeks to reverse such programs as Affirmative Action.  The APA (2003) cites evidence that such programs and efforts as described by (Yutrzenka et al, 1999) continue to be necessary.  The actions of the APA reflect a continuing trend to support the acceptance of all segments of American society.  It encourages psychologists to play an active role in moving Multiculturalism forward.

Recently, a federal court ruled that the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) is unconstitutional.  The next step will be the Supreme Court.  Such rulings represent a cultural shift in the United States towards more openness and fairness.   However, those persons uncomfortable with such a shift will, at least in the short term, become more intensely vocal in their opposition.  Nevertheless, it appears that a shift is taking place in society as well as in psychological training, education and practice. 

Significant Influences

This writer’s career as mentioned above was influenced early on by an exposure to the “big” thinkers in African American psychology of the 60’s, 70’s and 80’s.  Individuals such as Bobby Wright, Na’im Akbar and Wade Nobles had a lasting impact on my development as a practitioner.  As a young African American just beginning in the study and practice of psychology they offered a perspective that was not a part of any psychology class offered at the undergraduate or graduate schools this writer attended.  However, Carl Rogers had an equally significant impact regarding my views of what is important in clinical practice.  If there is such a thing as a culturally universal approach, Rogers found it.  This writer has found that the therapeutic triad of genuineness, unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy is appropriate and effective regardless of the race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or ability status of the client.  My area of specialty at the University of the Rockies is International Leadership.  This writer has had an opportunity to travel to Nigeria and spend time at a large psychiatric hospital in Lagos.  In spite of my previous training and education under Bobby Wright, as well as my personal openness, I still had to overcome a few basic biases that could have significantly interfered with developing healthy professional relationships with the people I worked with.  The employment of the therapeutic triad as well as a non-directive approach with the staff at the psychiatric hospital facilitated the release of certain biases and the gaining of very useful insight about African culture.  As a result, this writer developed very good working relationships with the Nigerians at the hospital. 

A Final Word

In the practice of psychology the goal is always to provide the best possible service for clients so that the issues they are struggling with might be resolved or at least managed more effectively.  The reality of practice is that no matter how uniform your client population seems to be, when the details of each person’s particular story begin to unfold it becomes clear how diverse the population actually is.  Many of the individuals here in Hawaii are grouped into several different census categories.  However, there is a very strong “local” culture complete with a dialect and specific cultural practices that overlaps the census categories.  Hawaii also happens to be the first state where no single ethnic group is in the majority.  In many ways Hawaii represents the future for the rest of the United States.  Psychology practitioners regardless of ethnicity must be culturally open and ready to learn. 

References

Carroll, K.K. (2008). African studies and research methodology: Revisiting the centrality of the Afrikan worldview. The Journal of Pan-African Studies, vol 2, no.2, 4-27. Retrieved from: http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol2no2/AfricanaStudiesandResearchMethodology.pdf

Carroll, K.K. (2010). A genealogical analysis of the worldview framework in African-centered psychology. The Journal of Pan-African Studies, vol 3, no.8, 109-134. Retrieved from: http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol3no8/3.8AGenealogical.pdf

Goodwin, C.J. (2008). A history of modern psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

Guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice, and organizational change for Psychologists. (2003). American Psychologist, 58(5), 377-402. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.5.377

Jamison, D.F. (2010), The roles and functions of Africana psychology. The Journal of Pan-African Studies, vol 3, no.8, 1-4. Retrieved from: http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol3no8/3.8EditorialTheRoles.pdf

Kirschenbaum, H., & Jourdan, A. (2005). The current status of Carl Rogers and the person-centered approach. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42(1), 37-51. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.42.1.37

Sue, D. (2004). Whiteness and Ethnocentric Monoculturalism: Making the "Invisible" Visible. American Psychologist, 59(8), 761-769. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.761

Wright, B.E. (1985). Psychopathic racial personality and other essays(2^nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Third World Press

Yutrzenka, B.A., Todd-Bazemore, E., & Caraway, S.J. (1999). Four winds: The evolution of culturally inclusive clinical psychology training for Native Americans. International Review of Psychiatry, 11, 129- 135. ProQuest: 43479524.